Donald Rumsfeld, a two-time US defense secretary who was a key architect of America’s bitterly divisive wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, has died at the age of 88. Rumsfeld passed away surrounded by his family in Taos, New Mexico, the family said in a statement on Wednesday. Former president George W Bush, whom he served for six years, led tributes by calling him “a man of intelligence, integrity, and almost inexhaustible energy”, adding that “he never paled before tough decisions, and never flinched from responsibility”. The former naval pilot’s career spanned decades of American political history. Rumsfeld was chief of staff to President Gerald Ford in the mid-1970s, serving alongside future vice-president Dick Cheney, then became defense secretary. He made a brief and dismal run for the 1988 Republican presidential nomination but was his second spell as Pentagon chief, under Bush, that would see him become the focus of intense liberal criticism. Rumsfeld, often described as gruff and confrontational, was at the Pentagon on 9/11 and seen on film helping survivors out of the building. He played a prominent role in Bush’s decision to invade Afghanistan to hunt down al-Qaida. The terrorist organization was responsible for the attacks in which hijacked passenger jets were flown into New York’s World Trade Center and the Pentagon, while one crashed in a field en route to Washington, killing a total of almost 3,000 people on September 11, 2001. Rumsfeld’s face became familiar to millions of TV viewers during press briefings on the conflict. At one he famously said: “There are known knowns. There are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns. That is to say, we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns, the ones we don’t know we don’t know.” That war, costing thousands of lives and trillions of dollars, has outlasted Rumsfeld, with Joe Biden due to withdraw US troops on September 11, the 20th anniversary of the original attacks. Rumsfeld, heeding neoconservative voices around Bush, then pushed the idea that Iraqi president Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction. The US launched a war against Iraq in 2003. No weapons of mass destruction were found. Rumsfeld twice offered his resignation to the president in 2004 after it was revealed that US troops had abused detainees they were holding at Iraq’s Abu Ghraib prison – an episode he later referred to as his darkest hour as defense secretary. Bush eventually replaced Rumsfeld in 2006 as the US military found itself bogged down after three and a half years of fighting. The former defense secretary then headed the Rumsfeld Foundation to promote public service and to work with charities that provide services and support for military families and wounded veterans. He also published an autobiography, Known and Unknown, that attempted to repair his legacy, accepting almost no blame for the debacle in Iraq and contending that the Middle East would be “far more perilous than it is today” if Saddam had remained in power. Rumsfeld is survived by his wife, Joyce, three children and seven grandchildren. The family said its statement on Wednesday: “It is with deep sadness that we share the news of the passing of Donald Rumsfeld, an American statesman and devoted husband, grandfather and great grandfather. “History may remember him for his extraordinary accomplishments over six decades of public service, but for those who knew him best and whose lives were forever changed as a result, we will remember his unwavering love for his wife Joyce, his family and friends, and the integrity he brought to a life dedicated to country.” Known as “Rummy” by friends but seen as abrasive by foes, Rumsfeld was the only person to serve twice as defense secretary. The first time, in 1975-1977, he was the youngest ever. The next time, in 2001-2006, he was the oldest. Cheney praised “Don’s unwavering belief in the greatness of this country” and said he guided America through turbulent times “with strength and resolve that came to embody who he was as a person”. Republican members of Congress paid homage to his storied career on Wednesday. Mitch McConnell, the Senate minority leader, said: “Donald Rumsfeld’s decades of service began and ended among the brave men and women working to keep America safe. “His time on active duty in the navy began a distinguished career that elevated his talents to the highest levels of policymaking and public leadership. At every step of the way, Donald Rumsfeld led with conviction and a cutting intellect. Our nation has lost one of its fiercest defenders.” Ben Sasse, a senator for Nebraska, added: “Too many politicians seek fame, popularity, and personal benefit from public service – not Donald Rumsfeld. “Rumsfeld was a serious man in a city that is regularly unserious about the people’s business. He made tough calls, took responsibility and worked tirelessly on behalf of the country he loved.” Mike Rogers, the top Republican on the House armed services committee, said: “On September 11, 2001 Donald was there to help lead our nation out of one of our darkest days, including running into the Pentagon to assist the wounded and survivors. I also appreciate his help to lay some of the early groundwork for space force. He was an extraordinary man and his loss will be deeply felt.”